Meanings of Intelligence and Adaptive Behavior Essay Example for Free

Meanings of Intelligence and Adaptive Behavior Essay Until several years ago, many students who were classified as having ID or assigned into an inclusion classroom were not expected to participate in standardized testing, however as late, everyone in public schools is expected to participate in standardized assessments. Some educators are happy with the change while others are concerned the assessments are not an accurate assessment of what students actually know. For many students with learning disabilities, standardized assessments often don’t accurately indicate what the student truly knows and where they have deficits. One problem with assessing students with ID is the identification and classification of ID is that they differ greatly between states and is often inconsistent. According to Kortez, students with specific learning disabilities are served under the IDEA, however we use the word â€Å"classification† when referring to the category of and indentified student’s specific disability or disabilities (Kortez). The major problem that arises is the fact that identification is being highly inconsistent which is raising the concern students being mislabeled. It seems as though some educators are either over identifying or under indentifying students. However, this is not just a problem on the educator’s level; it is also showing up on the state level. It seems as though when the combined across the nation, identification is inconsistent. More than half of all students being served are doing so under the IDEA part B umbrella, students with specific disabilities, while the number of students recognized as† learning disabled ranges from 3% to 9%† across the United States (Kortez). According to Kortez, not all states implement the same policies, guidelines, or criteria, therefore some states have a significant higher or lower number of students identified based on what they as a state deem legitimate. Because there is such a difference in policies, it is therefore difficult to d etermine an adequate way to assess students with disabilities. Inclusion needs to be implemented in a way that will not only boost the quality of performance generated by the assessment but also the constructive outcome of the education being provided. The difficulty therefore lies in being able to implement a sound assessment because of the significant essential factors. One factor that would have to be determined is how many special education students would qualify as ineligible to partake in the regular education assessments. Another factor that would be solved would be how the regular education assessment could be enhanced to better suit the needs of the special education students. Also, the decision would have to be made to determine the criteria for students who would qualify for accommodations and which accommodations would be appropriate. In order for all these decisions to be made, it is essential for all the characteristics as well as the needs of the indentified students be met, and it is almost impossible if the identification and cl assification of the students continue to be inconsistent. Another problem with assessing indentified students is the fact of accommodations. When a test is given to a student with disabilities, certain changes or â€Å"accommodations† are made. Some of these accommodations are simple as testing the student in a smaller group, allowing the frequent monitored breaks, allowing the student extra time to finish the assessment, or reading the directions or questions to the student. When small changes such as these mentioned are made, they are referred to as accommodations. However if changes such giving the student a different test, illuminating parts of the test, or change the test in any way it is referred to as a â€Å"modification† and the assessment is no longer considered a standard test and is referred to as a non-standard test. When it comes to the element of measuring the assessment, the main goal to implementing accommodations is to better validate the information regarding the students and their disabilities. Testing cons istency is implemented in order to increase the accuracy by getting rid of the immaterial variations for the testing between schools. For instance, if one school allows thirty minutes for a test and another allows an hour and a half, the longer test would be considered the bias between the two. When it comes to students and their disabilities it is only fair that accommodations be made in order to make the test fair for everyone. For example, if a student has a profound vision problem then it would only make sense to change the presentation of the test (larger print, recording), in order to show a more true result of what the student actually knows, instead of not doing well simply because they can’t see the text well enough. If accommodations aren’t standard then results will not be consistent and therefore we won’t have an accurate snapshot of what the students actually know. A third problem that may arise when testing students with disabilities is the design, construction, and evaluations of the test. One circumstance that needs to be considered where testing is concerned is the design of th e test. Some tests can be biased in one area where another assessment may be biased in another area. Some tests are designed to assess a certain group of students with similar backgrounds and therefore are biased against those students who don’t share a similar background. While there are methods for dealing with bias are implemented, not all the methods are not equipped to detect bias toward students with disabilities. Systems used for assessing bias often insist on students being paired on some criterion measure of the structure of relevance. For example, if a reasonable criterion could be settled on for fifth graders in math proficiency, then the students without disabilities and students with disabilities could be matched together and then determine if the two sets of students were similar or different in the same areas. The second area of design that needs to be considered is the difficulty of the assessment itself. Often, most students with disabilities do not perform well on assessments. Furthermore, most assessments are too complex for students with disabilities, therefore often rendering results that are intimidating for students with disabilities and may also cause unfavorable reactions from their teachers. Some students may be nonverbal students and may not be about to write or say their answers, making it impossible for them to par take in standardized tests. Many of the students with ID have a mixture of intelligence deficits and adaptive behavior that initiates their academic deficits. These deficits can’t be the effect of a sensory impairment, a specific learning disability, or a behavior disorder, and would have to start showing systems before the child reaches school age. If a student’s cognitive deficit seems to be mild, then their deficit would resemble a broad disability with no specific area. The students who have been diagnosed with a specific learning disability will have functioning highs and lows. Students with intelligence disabilities have a difficult time across the curriculum as well as adaptive behavior. As time goes on there are more and more students who have to take standardized tests. This can be difficult for teachers, especially when it is almost impossible to accurately assess them and their progress. Some of the problems that occur when assessing students with ID, is the classification and identification of students, deciding what accommodations or modifications should be used for each child, and if the test that is being administered is level appropriate for the students with disabilities. References 1. Kortez, Daniel. Center for the Study of Evaluation. Project 1.1 Comparative Analyses of Current Assessment and Accountability Systems/Strand 3 Daniel Koretz, Project Director, CRESST/Harvard Graduate School of Education http://www.cse.ucla.edu/products/reports/TR587.pdf 2. Centra, J. A., (1986). Handicapped student performance on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 324-327. 3. Clarizio, H. F., Phillips, S. E. (1992). A comparison of severe discrepancy formulae: Implications for policy consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 3, 55-68.

The Communications Decency Act :: essays research papers

The Communications Decency Act The Communications Decency Act that was signed into law by President Clinton over a year ago is clearly in need of serious revisions due, not only to its vagueness, but mostly due to the fact that the government is infringing on our freedom of speech, may it be indecent or not. The Communications Decency Act, also know by Internet users as the CDA, is an Act that aims to remove indecent or dangerous text, lewd images, and other things deemed inappropriate from public areas of the net. The CDA is mainly out to protect children. In the beginning, the anonymity of the Internet caused it to become a haven for the free trading of pornography. This is mainly what gives the Internet a bad name. There is also information on the Net that could be harmful to children. Information on how to make home-made explosives and similar info such as The Jolly Rodgers and the Anarchist's Cookbook are easily obtained on the Net. Pedophiles (people attracted to child porn) also have a place to hide on the Internet where nobody has to know their real name. As the average age of the Internet user has started to drop, it has became apparent that something has to be done about the pornography and other inappropriate info on the net. On February 1, 1995, Senator Exon, a Democrat from Nebraska, and Senator Gorton, a Republican from Washington, introduced the first bill towards regulating online porn. This was the first incarnation of the Telecommunications Reform Bill. On April 7, 1995, Senator Leahy, a Democrat from Vermont, introduces bill S714. Bill S714 is an alternative to the Exon/Gorton bill. This bill commissions the Department of Justice to study the problem to see if additional legislature (such as the CDA) is even necessary. The Senate passed the CDA as attached to the Telecomm reform bill on June 14, 1995 with a vote of 84-16. The Leahy bill does not pass, but is supported by 16 Senators that actually understand what the Internet is. Seven days later, several prominent House members publicly announce their opposition to the CDA, including Newt Gingrich, Chris Cox, and Ron Wyden. On September 26, 1995, Senator Russ Feingold urges committee members to drop the CDA from the Telecommunications Reform Bill. On Thursday, February 1, 1996, Congress passed (House 414-9, Senate 91- 5) the Telecommunications Reform Bill, and attached to it the Communications Decency Act. This day was known as "Black Thursday" by the Internet community. One week later, it was signed into law by President Clinton on Thursday, February 8, 1996, also known as the "Day of Protest.

Smart Soleh Slides

STUDY SKILLS (UUB 3013) ACADEMIC ACTIVITY PREPARED FOR: MADAM SITI NOOR AMYAH BINTI KHASBULLAH PREPARED BY: AIN NADIA BINTI ZAILAN (KJC1190154) AHMAD HEIKHAL BIN AMIR HAMZAH (KJC1190261) AZUADI BIN ZAHARIN (KJC0970162) DANIAL SHAM BIN MOHAMAD SHAMIN SHARMENDRAN (KJC1080452) HAIKAL BIN MOHAMAD NAZRI (KJC1160329) MOHAMMAD SHAHIN BIN MUHAMMAD NAZIR (KJC1160277) SYED MUZAMMIL BIN SYED ROSLAN (KJC1160022) SUBMISSION DATE: 30TH NOVEMBER 2011 Contents Introduction1 Objectives2 Organizational Chart3 Details of the Program4 Tentative Activity4 Treasurer5 Progress Report6 Conclusion9 Appendix IntroductionAs we all know, for our group assignment for Study Skills subject, we need to conduct an academic activity in an education institution. The main idea is to apply our knowledge about Study Skills in our own perspective based on the different level of education. Thus, our group has chosen to execute an activity at Smart Soleh Integrated Preschool located at Kota Damansara. This particular pre-sc hool consists of 30 pupils that range 4 to 6 in years. We would like to give an honorable thanks to our lecturer and advisor, Madam Siti Noor Amyah Binti Khasbullah for advising us throughout the planning and preparation period.Also, we would like to thank Madam Nor Banum Md. Noor, as the principal of Smart Soleh Integrated Preschool for approving our proposal and allowing us to execute our academic activities. We believe that children learn well when they are happy and having fun. Through game-based activities we aim to provide an environment where all children will feel valued and happy. We encourage the children to actively participate in their own learning and where, we hope, they will want to explore and learn more.We actively encourage positive relationships where children have high levels of self-esteem and self-confidence, developing care and respect for themselves, others and their environment. Furthermore, we stresses on teamwork and toleration so that the children will le arn how to work with others in the future. During our activities, we are trying to  provide a high quality material that will develop their intellectual skills, ensuring that children are happy and involved with their own learning. We rewarded the children with useful prizes such as stationery items and goodies so that they will compete healthily with each other. ObjectivesFor this particular academic activity, there are two different sides of objectives, first is the objective for the Study Skills Assignment and second is the objective for the children in the preschool. Firstly, by doing this project, our objective is to complete our assignment for Study Skills subject as we were assigned by our lecturer to execute an academic activity at the educational institution. Therefore, we will achieve our objective as soon as this project is done. Furthermore, our objective is to practice teamwork and to tolerate with all of our team members as implementing what we have learnt in Study S kills subject in this semester.Secondly, our objective for the children in the preschool is to create fun learning for the children by conducting a game-based activities as children love to play and they actually learn from it. All of the structured activities that we planned will benefit the children at the end of the day as we focused in academic mainly. Paradoxically, the children learn new things faster than we do, therefore we have to carefully create an interesting and beneficial educational activities. We also aim to provide an inclusive, safe, caring and stimulating environment for the children.Children need those elements in order for them perfectly absorb the learning experience. Safe and caring environment are important since children are active and at their age, they do not implement safety action yet. As a matter of fact, it is our responsibility to provide safe and caring yet stimulating environment for them regardless how we do it. On the other hand, our objective is also to provide a balance, carefully structured activities for the children based on his/her individual developmental needs to foster their well-being, self-esteem and personal development.Children have different characteristics just like we humans do. They think differently, they behave differently and they learn differently. We might confront passive child whom can be characterized as aimless and lethargic. The passive child's facial expressions are dull, with little indication of alertness. Also, we might confront hyperactive child. These children would be continually moving about, exploring the environment around them and in the process creating chaos. For this reason, we have to create carefully structured activities for them to develop their personal development.Last but not least, we also aim to provide regular opportunities for communication and understand well the main of interaction with little kids and exchange and discuss information concerning the child’s develop ment. For instance, we promote teamwork and toleration to the children so that they know how to work with others in learning and everyday life. Organizational Chart Details of the Program Name of the program: Fun Learning – Alphabets ;amp; Numbers Date: 17th November 2011 Time: 09. 30 – 11. 30 am Location: Smart Soleh Integrated Preschool Ground Floor Block A,Pangsapuri Tainia 11/3, Jalan Kenyalang, Kota Damansara, 47810 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan. Number of participants: 30 pupils Tentative Activity Date| Time| Activity| 17th November 2011| 09. 30 am| Arrival| | 09. 30 – 10. 00 am| Introduction: â€Å"Ice-Breaking†| | 10. 00 – 10. 30 am| Musical Chair| | 10. 30 – 11. 00 am| Academic Activity: * Word Puzzle * Dot-to-Dot * Maze Game| | 11. 00 – 11. 15 am| Prize-giving Ceremony| | 11. 15 – 11. 30 am| Farewell| Treasurer Budget: RM10. 00 X 7 person = RM70. 00 Date| Place| Expenditures| Items| Total(RM)| 5/11/2011| Carrefo ur, Subang Jaya| Prizes ;amp; Goodies| * Stationeries * Goodies * Miscellaneous| 52. 05| 16/11/2011| SNY Stationers, LCS| Activity| * Sketch Book * Stickers| 6. 30| 17/11/2011| SNY Stationers, LCS| Activity| Photocopy A4| 2. 50| 18/11/2011| Hassan ;amp; Norma| Expenses – Volunteer’s Treat| Food| 9. 00| TOTAL| 69. 85 | Progress Report Academic Activity at Smart Soleh Intergrated School We were assigned to conduct an academic activity at educational institution.The venue was proposed by Azuadi Bin Zaharin, as the place is near and it is convenient for us. The activities were proposed by all of the group members while the budget were proposed by the treasurer and project director during our first meeting on the 5th October 2011. The planning took about two weeks before the paperwork was done. There were several impediments to progress such as the group members have difficulty to attend the meeting, lack of communication and been loaded with other assignments. However, we managed to reconcile and make sure that the project is going well.The requested permission letter was given to us by our lecturer ;amp; advisor, Madam Siti Noor Amyah Binti Khasbullah on the 20th October 2011. The permission letter to conduct the academic activity at the educational institution was then sent to the principal of Smart Soleh Integrated Preschool by Azuadi Bin Zaharin. The principal accepted our permission letter and approved our proposal along with fixing the date, which is on the 17th November 2011. As soon as the proposal has been approved, we made the preparation. The budget were collected by the treasurer on 10th November 2011 from all of the group members.With the budget, the expenditures were made by the project director, Ain Nadia on 15th November 2011 by purchasing all the items to be given as prizes and goodies to be given as treats to the children. The next day, the items needed for the academic activities were purchased. After everything is complete, the fi nal preparation was done by confirming our arrival tomorrow to the principal. On 17th November 2011, we departed from Universiti Tun Abdul Razak, Leisure Commerce Square at 8. 30am. The traffic was badly congested. However we managed to arrive at 9. 30am.Our arrival was welcomed by the giggles and cheers from the children before we were formally welcomed by the principal. We introduced ourself to the principal and teachers before we started the introduction to the children. The introduction began with the emcee speech by Ain Nadia, and followed by each members introduced their names and the nickname that that kids can call them. Then, all of the members, responsibled as the facilitators, chose five children to be in each group. There were six groups altogether. The â€Å"Ice-Breaking† activity was conducted by the facilitators in a two-way communication with the children.The facilitator are responsible to take care their respective group through out the activities until the e nd of the event. Moving on to the next activity, while the facilitators were busy entertaining their group, our volunteer, Kathiravan which was our photographer at the same time, helped us to prepare for the next activity which was Musical Chair. Fourteen chairs were arranged in a circle. One of the facilitator, Syed Muzammil who was in charged for the sound system, prepared the songs for the game. The six groups were divided into two, three groups to participate in the Musical Chair while another three groups to be the audience.There were two rounds of the Musical Chair game before we finally have our respective winners to compete in the final round. The winner received a colouring book with a colour pencil set while the other children received goodies for each time anyone got eliminated from the game. The highlighted activities are done in the same room to avoid confusion as our objective is to provide an inclusive, safe, caring and stimulating environment for the children. We con ducted the activities freely by sitting on the floor in groups. Each group were given a piece of activity paper.The first was Word Search, continued with Dot-to-Dot and lastly the Maze Game. The objective of the game is to find the fastest team to complete the activities on condition of teamwork. During the activity, the facilitators observed their respective groups. We found that, there were active children, less-active children and also a hyperactive child. For the active children, we encourage them to be competitive and build their teamwork. However, for the less-active children, we helped them to adapt in the activity, build their self-esteem and convinced them that they can do it.A facilitator took the responsibility in taking care of the hyperactive child while the emcee helped him to take care of his group. We hold on to our objectives which are to provide a balance, carefully structured activities for the children based on his/her individual developmental needs to foster the ir well-being, self-esteem and personal development and provide regular opportunities for communication understand well the main of interaction with little kids and exchange and discuss information concerning the child’s development.Finally, we carried on to the next event, which is the prize-giving ceremony. The fastest groups for each activity were given prizes. The winner for the Word Search game was Haikal’s group, while the winner for the Dot-to-Dot game was Ahmad Heikhal’s group and the winner for the Maze Game was Mohammad Shahin’s group. We had a special prize which was a hamper for the group with the best teamwork. After the observations and discussions with the facilitators, we awarded Danial Sham’s group the best teamwork award as we saw them highly cooperating with each other and tolerated in an impressive way.This is what Danial Sham had to say about his group, â€Å"There are types of children that I met in my team. Izah was the moth er of my team because whenever a child was crying she would go to the kid and comfort the kid. She would also arrange the â€Å"kepiah† on the boy’s head, if it’s slanting a bit then she would arrange it back. Adam who was funny, active and loving, gave me a gentle hug when we were about to leave. Sofea was the Informative one because I am not very good with names and whenever I forgot their names she would tell me their names.They do not judge or think badly of you they would just help you when you got a problem. They easily make friends; they do not choose them by his or her status. We also did an activity where we must complete a maze puzzle, connect the dots and Sahiba, my team didn’t won a single prize because we didn’t finish first in every activity, but we still had fun because I push them to finish the activity instead of moping and feeling sad. When we got the prize for most cooperative team they were happy because we finally win something . We had a photography session in the end to capture our moments together before we say farewell and as part of our assignment, we need the photos to prove that we have execute the activity. Surprisingly, right after the photography session with the children, principal and teachers, the children sang the song â€Å"You’ll Be In My Heart† from the film Tarzan. We were deeply touched, by the sincerity of the children. It was the best farewell that we had. The children lined up in two rows, boys and girls, they shook hand with all of us, and we gave them inspirational words to them.We bid farewell and thanked the principal, teachers and all of the children for the great day we had with them. The academic activity has been successfully conducted. All of the group members felt relieved and happy at the same time. The activity went well and smoothly, just the way we planned it to be. Conclusion In particular, we as a group believe that the project of ours is a big success. W ith a big help from our lecturer, family and friends, we managed to pull out a great activity with those exciting and energetic kids at the preschool.Not to forget, the principal and teachers of Smart Soleh Integrated Preschool whom has given us support and guidance in order to make this project going smoothly. At the same time, we also have encountered several problems while executing this project. For example, to handle quite a number of energetic pupils, react towards the situation when there are passive kids that can easily cry, and to understand what the kids are trying to voice out, etc. These actually become a challenge for us to conduct the ideal form of education skills and to meet up the criteria needed to deals with those kids.Dealing with that, we have to analyze back our input and try to cope back with the kids using our redraft plan and some adjustments. After the whole two hours, all of the members agreed to feel mentally exhausted. This assignment is very different t o compare with other subjects’ assignments. We learnt how to cope with the pressure, we learnt how to really be patient and we learnt to be friendly and nice despite our aggressiveness. The two hours were not easy for us, but we hold on until the end proving that all of us can actually encounter this type of challenge.In the meantime, the main plan and the designated antennary have work well with the cooperation from all the group members. Besides that, the teachers also have helped us a lot in handling the problematic kids and preparing the props. We managed to conduct several academic activities focusing on the kid’s intellectual skills and soft skills. Alongside with the activities, we also played some games and sing-a-long with those kids. Lastly, with two hours time, we believe that we gave the best activity and gained a lot of informative knowledge about kids education development.The best thing that we gained from the assignment is the teamwork. We learnt how to work with each other, how to tolerate and how to communicate with each other. Than just classmates, we became teammates and that is a good thing. We helped each other during the activity, to cover everyone’s back and to complete the task together. However, we suggest that for this kind of assignment, the university should sponsor some budget in order for us to organize a better activity.It will be convenient if we get the sponsor, we could create a better structured activities that requires a little costly budget. Furthermore, we suggest that the university can provide the transportation for us to the educational institution to avoid transportation problem. Overall, we can conclude this activity is a good and yet fun to gain and utilize the knowledge about the Study Skills subject. This kind of activity has helped us a lot to understand well about the Study Skills knowledge and how to implement it.To put icing to the cake, we felt very happy and enjoy while doing this projec t and we would love to conduct the same activity in the future again in any chance.Total Word Count : 2,774 Appendix Arrival ;amp; Preparation Introduction: â€Å"Ice Breaking† Musical Chair Academic Activity: Word Search, Dot-to-Dot ;amp; Maze Game Prize-giving Adi’s Group Shahin’s Group Ahmad Heikhal’s Group Amil’s Group Danial Sham’s Group Haikal’s Group Farewell With all the kids ;amp; teachers Academic Activity Word Search Academic Activity Dot-to-Dot Academic Activity Maze Game Receipts

The, Deloria, Collins, And Mcclintock - 1712 Words

Page Robinson Reflection – Gilmore, Deloria, Collins, and McClintock Ruthie Gilmore – Golden Gulag Gilmore’s piece aims to disprove the myth that prisons are built by crime by focusing on the growth of California’s state prison system since 1982 and the accompanying grassroots opposition. Prisons are thought to stop crime through retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The dominant explanation for prison growth is that crime went up, so prisons were created, and crime went down. However, states with fewer prisons have noticed greater decreases in crime. Prisons do not lead to increased stability because of thinning financial and emotional resources, the breakdown of informal customary relationships, mental illness†¦show more content†¦A second historical tradition is whites refusing to give non-whites the rights they legally possess. Laws were passed that forced Indians to conform to white institutions, convincing Indians they were the world’s stupidest people. The history of Indians was manipulated to fit the needs of the interme diaries. Deloria hypothesizes that Indians are probably invisible because of the tremendous amount of misinformation about them. Understanding Indians means understanding Indian affairs. However, there exist many myths about Indian affairs. To address â€Å"Indian problems† task force reports are demanded. â€Å"The conclusion of every task force report is that Congress is not appropriating enough money to do an adequate job of helping Indians† (Deloria 1969). Paternalism is a favorite subject of task forces. However, government paternalism is not a serious problem, while private sector paternalism is. The problem is that since no one asked the churches, white interest organizations, and universities to come, it’s hard to ask them to leave. Over time tribes have discovered that they must band together to make themselves heard. Indians have two mainstream organizations; The National Congress of American Indians and The National Indian Youth Council. Tribes have a lso found that by handling problems amongst themselves they are more successful than when trying to adapt to the white value system. However,

The Loss of Privacy Will Be a Major Consequence of the...

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Jim Willies a former reporter for The Oklahoman wrote an article about an 18 year old boy that committed suicide because of his loss of privacy in the internet. Tyler Clementi jumped to his death off the George Washington Bridge shortly afterwards. Two students stand accused of secretly webcasting the sexual encounter involving Clementi and another man (Jim, 2010). The Loss of Privacy is an issue that had lead to a lot of complicated and awkward situations, but also can lead to some positive consequences. Sometimes people don’t remember important information about them, and thanks to the Computer Databases of any kind of organization this person is related to, they can get any kind of personal information stored in those databases at any time. The Health Insurance companies, Car insurance, Bank accounts. Any of this types of Organizations are very helpful when a person doesn’t remember or is disoriented about some personal information they need to have knowledge about. 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Nickel and Dimed Book Review - 1182 Words

Can someone really live and prosper in American receiving minimal income? Can someone create a good lifestyle for themselves on just six to seven dollars an hour? In Nickel and Dimed Barbara Ehrenreich goes undercover to find out if it is indeed possible. Giving herself only $1,000 she leaves the lifestyle that she has come accustomed too and goes to join all the people living the low class way of life. Before setting out, she gave herself a list of rules she had to follow so that her experience would be as real as it could be. Her first rule was when looking for a job she couldn t mention the skills she had learned from her education. Second, she had to take the highest paying job that was being offered to her. Third, she had to live†¦show more content†¦Days go by and she s getting tired form the physical labor that comes with the house cleaning service. She explains what she was doing with her co-workers at the cleaning service and calls in sick after her last day at the nursing home. In Chapter 3 she starts over again in Minnesota. She finds herself lucky here because she gets to stay at a friends while there out of town, saving her the trouble of finding housing right away. Although, after her friends return, here she ends up having the most trouble finding a place to live. She lives in a hotel throughout her experience in Minnesota. This really messes up her money situation. Ehrenreich applies for many different jobs and ends up choosing between Wal-Mart and Menards. She picks Wal-Mart and find herself working in the women s department organizing and hanging up clothes. She realizes that she must became friendly with the dressing room attendants in order to make her job easier. Again her supervisors constantly get on her about wasting time. She uses her break times to talk to her fellow workers about a union but quits before really getting anything started. In the end Barbara ended up breaking all of the rules she had set for herself but she feel s that she did a good job at her project. She was alarmed by the way that some of her co-workers lived and felt that she learned a lot from her experiences. I really enjoyed reading this book. It truly gives you aShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Christopher Doob s The First Edition Of Social Inequality And Social Stratification 1119 Words   |  5 Pagesstratification in US Society. The author structures this book in the direction towards a theoretical concept that attracts the reality of social inequality and stratification as a whole. Doob dissects this books into eleven chapters given that each chapter examines the inequality of stratification. Also during the readings of this book Doob used plenty of data to show the socioeconomic strata revolved around the history of America. 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Low income families are often constrained by many hurdles that do not allowRead MoreTaking a Closer Look at Poverty1416 Words   |  6 PagesRelative Poverty is â€Å"a level of economic deprivation that exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average Standard of living. A great example of Relative Poverty is located in the article: Nickel and Dimed written by Barbara Ehrenreich. Barbara Ehrenreich performed a brilliant experiment in which she had to experience what life is like only profiting $2.43 an hour including tips. Barbara Ehrenreich decided to work for a family restaurant named

Early History Of The Celts Essay Example For Students

Early History Of The Celts Essay INTRODUCTIONThe Ancient Celts were not an illiterate people, but they transferred their knowledge orally. They had an alphabet of twenty letters called Ogham. Each letter was named after a tree from the land where they lived. Ogham was used on standing stones, primarily on graves and boundary markers. The primary sources of information about the Celts are, in that light, the texts written by the Romans who were in touch with them and Christian monks, who lived in Irish monasteries in the Middle Ages. Caesar, Livy and Tacitus, wrote about their contemporaries who lived in a way different than themselves and therefore were considered ?barbarians, but even though they did not have a positive attitude towards them, they still left some useful information about Celtic society, religion, way of life, and so on. One of the problems that arise from this is that many things in these writings are romanised, e.g. Caesar interprets Celtic gods and calls them by the names of their Roman equivalen ts:?They worship as their divinity, Mercury, in particular, and have many images of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they consider him the guide of their journeys and marches, and believe him to have great influence over the acquisition of gain and mercantile transactions. Next to him they worship Apollo, and Mars, and Jupiter, and Minerva; respecting these deities they have for the most part the same belief as other nations: that Apollo averts diseases, that Minerva imparts the invention of manufactures, that Jupiter possesses the sovereignty of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides over wars. The second type of sources are the books written from 6th 13th century on by Christian monks in Ireland and Celtic Britain. These books were written several centuries later, so the oral tradition might have changed and much of the information was under Christian influences. The Celts were one of the most significant and powerful peoples in Europe from fourth until first cen tury BC, and their culture one of the most influential. From then on they had a turbulent history, and their legacy continues to live even today. The following pages will be an attempt to MAIN PARTToday, Celtic is a family of languages of the Indo ? European group. The Celts are, by definition, all the people who spoke or speak one of the Celtic languages. A unifying Celtic language existed probably somewhere between 1200 and 750 BC, in the Bronze Age, when Urnfield culture was at its peak. This people spoke a language that would later develop into Celtic. Their ?ur- Celtic developed in two dialects, first Goidelic (or Q ? Celtic) and later Brythonic (or P ? Celtic). The P/Q differentiation came from the diverse pronunciations of an Indo ? European sound /kw/. In Goidelic it became /k/, in Brythonic /p/. Goidelic transformed into the languages spoken in Ireland, Isle of Man and Scotland; Brythonic into Welsh, Cornish and Breton. The next period of Celtic history is connected with Hallstatt culture, which existed approximately from 700 to 500 BC. The later Iron Age phase of Celtic culture is called La T?ne, after a site in west ern Switzerland and dates from 5th to 1st century BC. The Celts almost certainly began to expand to the British Isles during this period. Their influence extended from what are now France, Spain, and British Isles to the shores of the Black Sea from the Ukraine to Turkey. When the Romans came to these territories, they ended the La T?ne culture, but in the places they did not occupy, like as Ireland and Scotland, the La T?ne culture prospered until about 200 AD. The word Celt comes from Keltoi, the name that Greek writers gave to these people. To the Romans, the Continental Celts were known as Galli and Galatae, or Gauls and they called those in Britain Pritanni. In the 4th century BC the Celts invaded the world in possession of the Greeks and Romans, conquering northern Italy and sacking Rome, while also conquering Macedonia and Thessaly. They raided Rome in 390 (or 387), conquered southern Italy between 282 and 272, sack Delphi in 279, and the Gauls came to Asia Minor in 278/277. After the height of their power, the Celts (the first Indo-European group to spread across Europe) were pushed north and west by Germans and Romans. Most of Britain came under Roman rule in the 1st century AD and the Celts of central Europe came under the domination of the Germans. When Huns from Asia came later, the Celts were pushed west and north, to England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland and the northern coast of France. In medieval and modern times the Celtic tradition and languages survived in Brittany (Western France), Cornwall, Galicia (North Western Spain), Galatia (Central Turkey), Wales, the Scottish Highlands, Isle of Man and Ireland, and to a lesser extent in the Norse/Celtic culture of Iceland. Social Structure of the Celts (Caesar)?The various Celtic tribes were bound together by common speech, customs, and religion, rather than by any well defined central governments. The absence of political unity, contributed substantially to the extinction of their way of life, maki ng them vulnerable to their enemies. Warfare was the basis of the early Celtic societies. Their technique of warfare was to run towards the rival army and scream and beat their spears and swords against their shields, and it seemed that not only the Celts, but also the land around them was making the noise, so the enemy was often shocked and tried to run away. They fought in smaller groups. The Celts main weapons were sword and spear. Shields were common and were made of basket weave or wood, sometimes they were covered with leather. Bows and slings were sometimes used as well, but were not common. Until the arrival of the Romans, Celtic warfare was primarily among themselves. They liked to settle their battles in such way that the chieftains or kings fought one on one. If the king died, the whole tribe was defeated. When the Celts came into contact with the Romans, they had to change the way they fought to a more structured defence against a larger army, but were never able to enti rely unite against the Romans. Caesar describes them like this: ?The most civilized of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with wood, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin. Celtic society was based almost exclusively on the raising of cattle or sheep; there was some agriculture in the Celtic world, but not much. Their main crop was wheat . There was no trade or commerce; everything was in the form of exchange. They refused to take money for their goods from other peoples; they only accepted trade i form of recprocity. Social structure ? Ireland Celtic society was tribal and based on kinship, connected by a system of laws and social customs, known as the Brehon Laws, which existed in Ireland intact for centuries. This was a customary law, based on tradition. The Druids guarded the legal matters and determined the results of disputes. They decided on matters of inheritance, property, marriage, and so on. The extended family, called fine or clann, was the basic social unit, and it consisted of several generations of male descendants from one ancestor. The clan stood behind its members, providing them protection. The whole clan reacted when one of their members would be murdered or insulted. Each individual had his honour price which showed his worth in the fine. Any damage or death imposed by another person required co mpensation to be paid to the fine of the injured party. Blood feud existed as an institution, but it was often avoided with help of professional mediators. Since it was the duty of the clan to protect individuals, crimes against an individual would be crimes against an entire clan. When several families settled on a particular territory they formed a tuath, which was the basic political structure, ruled by a chieftain or a king. Becoming a king was established on a blood relationship, but it was not hereditary. His role was principally dealing outside the tuath and as a war leader. The king was a sacred person ? his death in a battle would mean the defeat of the tuath. The king was the key element of the social structure. He was responsible for the prosperity of the tribe. The king was responsible for the redistribution of wealth in his kingdom. Inside the tuath, society was fundamentally divided into three classes: the Nobility, landowners and warriors; the Aes Dana, men of art and learning, craftsmen, and included the Druids; and the Commoners or Churls who did not own any land but were free and not slaves. Slavery existed amongst the Celts, but their slaves were war captives and other conquered people. The kinship group, and not the individual, was the most important under Brehon law. The kinship group was responsible for the actions of all its members. ?Celtic society was rigidly divided into a class system. Similar class systems predominated among the Indians as well with largely the same categories. The Druids were the educated and occupied the highest social position, just as the Brahmin class occupied the highest social position among the Indians. The Druids were responsible for cultural and religious knowledge as well as the performance of rituals, just as the Brahmins in India. Celtic society had a sharply defined structure of rank or caste (with a possibility of moving up) ? serfs and peasants; freemen and craftsmen; warriors; nobles; kings and prie sthood. The Brehons, or judges, were from the Druid caste. Responsibility was proportional to the rank; systems of behaviour were set for each caste the higher the status, the stricter the rules. The position in society was determined by the ownership of cattle (there was no land ownership in early Celtic society). Land was usually owned in common by the fine, but the leader of the fine probably determined the use of the land. The concept of clientship was important: a nobleman had ?clients ? lower classes who gave him products and services for his protection and support. Rank inside the circles of the nobility of the tuath was determined by individual strength and skill. Special Role of DruidsWhen Celtic religious functions are mentioned, ?Druid is the first word that comes into our minds and is associated with the word ?priest. ?The Druids combined the functions of the priest, the magistrate, the scholar, and the physician. They stood to the people of the Celtic tribes in a relat ion closely analogous to that in which the Brahmans of India, the Magi of Persia, and the priests of the Egyptians stood to the people respectively by whom they were revered. Druids were around from the 2nd century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD, when the Romans conquered the Celtic and with Christianity the Druids pagan religious functions disappeared. There is very little knowledge of the Druids ways because they relied on oral tradition and not on written records. The Druids were responsible for all rituals and for all contacts with the gods. The people could communicate with the gods only through the Druids, except for the divine father god of the tuath any member of his tuath was able to contact him. The Druids were very appreciated and very influential and powerful. They were the teachers, doctors, and lawyers of Celtic society. ?But of these two orders, one is that of the Druids, the other that of the knights. The former are engaged in things sacred, conduct the public and the private sacrifices, and interpret all matters of religion. To these a large number of the young men resort for the purpose of instruction, and they are in great honour among them. For they determine respecting almost all controversies, public and private; and if any crime has been perpetrated, if murder has been committed, if there be any dispute about an inheritance, if any about boundaries, these same persons decide it; they decree rewards and punishments; if any one, either in a private or public capacity, has not submitted to their decision, they interdict him from the sacrifices. The Druids had definitive control in sacred and mundane matters. They were the authority in everything from legal matters to contact with gods. They were experts in the natural world, the animals, useful plants, and the movement and influences of the sun, moon and stars. The laws, history, and traditions of all Celtic life were stored in their memories. ?It took twenty years to learn all the D ruidical cannon, for the Druid functioned not only as minister of religion, with its doctrine of immortality and complete moral system, but also as philosopher, teacher and natural scientist and keeper of the law and its interpretation. Students who were learning to become Druids themselves were taught by repeating the masters words until they would memorize everything. Many of the Druids were literate and they sometimes used writing when dealing with other peoples, they did not want to use it when it came to their knowledge and tradition. They felt this matters should be known by heart and they did not want to risk the knowledge falling into wrong hands and being used against their people. Religion and MythologyThe Celts were polytheistic and their gods were of a more primitive, Indo-European origin. Celtic gods often came in threes; so it was not difficult for them to later accept the Christian concept of Trinity. Celtic had no temples required for their religious rituals, they co ncentrated mainly on the natural environment. When they were going to worship a god, they would make a circle in the open, set an altar in the middle and in that way make a sacred place. Their religion was very much in harmony with their natural surroundings. The Celts measured time by nights followed by days, not the reverse as we do today. They even had a calendar, kept by the Druids, which was based on lunar, and not solar motion. Four major religious festivals marked their seasons. Imbolc, which was held in February, was a pastoral festival of fertility and growth. It was connected with the first milking of the cows. The Unprincipled Family EssayThe earth mother was, together with the Sky father, parent of all the gods. She was connected with the fertility of the land, crops, and herds, as well as people. She would also defend the tuath when it was threatened by use of magic rather than physical weapons. There were gods and goddesses of places like sacred trees, clearings, wells, and the like. Most male gods were associated with a female consort, often mother goddess figures. Shapeshifting was common among Celtic gods and goddesses who often took the form of their favourite animals. Animals were also important in Celtic religious beliefs. Birds were linked with the gods as bringers of omens and messengers. Swans, if portrayed wearing gold or silver chains, were supernatural and often represented gods in bird form. Ravens were messengers of the gods and their calls were considered prophetic. The salmon was regarded as the holder of Otherworld wisdom and a symbol for sacred rivers and pools. The salmon was also considered prophetic, as was the trout. Water sources were especially sacred. The Celts believed that the waters possessed healing powers and that they were entrances into the Otherworld. Gifts were thrown into springs, rivers and sacred wells as gifts to the gods. The Romans co nsidered the Celts very barbaric, because of some of their beliefs and their customs of war. One of the Celtic rituals was human sacrifice. Another custom was based on the fact that they believed that the humans soul is in the head, so they cut off their enemies heads and kept them as trophies. They were also regarded as superstitious for their blessing the houses and performing rituals. Introduction of Christianity When the Romans conquered the Celts, they brought Christian faith with them. The Christianity was well established in Celtic Britain by the 4th century AD and from there it spread to Ireland probably by means of British captives. In the 5th century the Saxons and other Germanic tribes occupied Britain and pushed most of the Celtic Christians into Wales and Cornwall. At the same time, Saint Patrick and other British missionaries founded a new church in Ireland and that church became the centre of Celtic Christianity. St. Patrick is said to have established Christianity in Ireland and introduced literacy, and in the next few centuries it either overthrew or absorbed the old pagan ways. Pagan festivals and holidays were adapted into Christian holy days, and many of the local god and goddess stories converted into tales of Irish saints. The most famous example is the Celtic goddess Brigid, or Bride, who is now known in the Christian Church as St. Brigit, the leading female saint of Ireland. The Christianity on territories occupied by Rome was Episcopal ? under the control of a bishop, but that kind of Christianity demanded more urbanization than there was in the Celtic world. Irish Christianity soon became monastic ? under the leadership of abbots. The Irish monks and monasteries did much to save the knowledge of ancient Roman literature in early medieval Europe. Between the late 6th and the early 8th centuries, Irish missionaries were Christianising Europe, and they founded numerous monasteries in what is today France, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. This was the Golden Age of Ireland. It wasnt until the late sixth century that Christianity was reintroduced into Britain; this brand of Christianity, more associated with the practices of the Roman church, came into conflict with Celtic Christianity and its unique practices. By the tenth century, the unique Celtic Christianity of Britain had largely been subordinated to Saxon Christianity. Celtic Christianity in Ireland weakened when the Vikings invaded in the 9th and 10th centuries and by the 12th century its characteristic institutions, which differed from the prevailing traditions of the Roman church, basically disappeared from Europe. CONCLUSIONThere are many theories about Celtic origins, about their mythology and their culture, but they are often only theories. Writing history as such is very complicated and can never be seen as completely accurate. Therefore, one can never be sure of the events from the past. The early Celtic history is based on ?second-hand sources, and ma ny things are too vague to be considered absolute truth. For the most part we can only speculate. Todays romantic view of the Celts is that of magic, heroes and the supernatural. On the other side, there is a sceptic view that denies all connections between the tribes that are considered Celtic. Well probably never know with complete certainty. Nonetheless, we try to find out, we try to shed light, to conclude. With the help of the sources that we can rely on ? archaeological evidence, Romans and monks ? we can make more theories, but they will still be only theories. BibliographyCaesar, Julius : De bello Gallico (Gallic Wars)Ellis, Peter Berresford. The Celtic Empire Bulfinch, Thomas. Bulfinchs Mythology: The Age of Fable, The Age of Chivalry, Legends of Charlemagne,